Scientific Method Applied To Forensic Science Environmental Sciences Essay

Scientific Method Applied To Forensic Science Environmental Sciences Essay Forensic science is often described as a science about patterns of crime mechanisms, about collection of information about the crime and its participants, about rules of evidence gathering, researching, evaluating and applying, and eventually about those media and methods based on this knowledge necessary for judicial scrutiny conduction and crime prevention (Raton, 2003). It makes it natural for this science to use not only specific forensic methods, but general scientific method tested by time and different branches of natural and physical knowledge as well. The term scientific method means a method of research in which a problem is identified, relevant data are gathered, a hypothesis is formulated from these data, and the hypothesis is empirically tested (Flexner Hauck, 1987). The matter is, many scientists fail to build a fundamental theory of how scientific method is applied to forensic science, while it is extremely important to differentiate the way it is applied to this science and the way it is applied to other sciences, as they differ to a great extent. Forensic sciences study the past and not the present, Dr. Thomas Young explains (Young, 2009). The first stage, observation and description is intended to find out and completely reflect what happened. The activity of observation requires efficient and intentional direct perception of objects and phenomena with the use of senses. It includes the study of materials and products, structures and textures. It is especially significant during inspection, search, and other investigative actions. The purpose of observation depends on the character of the object or phenomena we examine. Sometimes we reveal some thing; sometimes we look for certain characteristics, properties and features this thing possesses. In other cases it can be the behavior of the suspect, accused etc. (Davis, 2005). According to these criteria, some facts revealed during observation and procedurally fixed can have the significance of evidence, while others (like the behavior of a defendant during the interrogation) can be just a kind of material to build versions. In this way the task is to describe a set of de fined circumstances, to reconstruct the picture of the crime or a tort, to recreate the intricate variety of past conditions as full as possible, paying attention to timing and order of events. The prerogative are the actions intended to reveal and fix the traces of the crime or tort that change fast and the evidences which can be easily lost or changed on purpose. When the expert has enough data to see what took place, he formulates a hypothesis or several of them to explain the observation. This process can be also called versification we look for versions. The gnoseological aspect interprets version as a form of transmission from unawareness to knowledge about the investigated event. Thats why it is defined as a form and process of reflecting material world phenomena and empowering the objective nature of a studied object by thought itself. The process of cognition doesnt put borders between logical, psychological and cognitive aspects as they are all the parts of one process of mentality (Shafer, 2008). To have scientific power, hypotheses should be theoretically substantiated, allow specific order of verification and applicable methods to check the version. Hypothesis is a driving force of science development; hypothesis is one of the forms of science. Apart from the general theory of forensic science, the expert should apply his own professional experience. This stage is based on application of different logical constructions as an instrument. It is closely connected with the next action, consisting in building up predictions of other phenomena or concluding results. The media and methods of forming forensic predictions are intended for practical cognition of certain social phenomena which is a crime and aim at solving the question of guilt or guiltlessness of the subject. Hence they are to correspond to the strict criteria of reliability, legality, morality and acceptability. Each result, each consequence concluded from the proposed version should be carefully verified. Until the version is disproved and rejected, each fact logically coming from it should be checked in the light of its correspondence to the reality. Some part examined does not give the reason to take the version as something objectively true. If the examination provides contradicting data, you should never stop the tests. All the reasons of divergence should be found out. Falsification is an essential constituent of the scientific method. The hypothesis should be ideally either disproved or falsified. If there is a possibility to disprove the hypothesis, the scientist can discard it and turn to another, more correct hypothesis. Alternatively, if the hypothesis is confirmed by the experimentation and the following observation, it still does not mean this confirmation proves the truth of the hypothesis, Thomas Young claims (Young, 2009). Among the other methods, some statistical methods (generating quantitative results) are applied. Though they are not very popular and, according to the results of the survey, only 7% of respondents rely on them. Quantitative methods dont receive wide practical use because they fail to take to account individual features, and because this systems are not developed that well at all (Shafer, 2008). The last and the very important stage includes the application of such scientific method as experiment. It is usually based on scientifically conducted test performed to study the verified phenomena and its links with other phenomena. The particular feature of the experiment is possibility and necessity to interfere in the process of testing, studying the phenomena from different sides and in different conditions. Through investigation experiment is applied in various forms. One of the most effective methods affirmed by the theory of forensic science is parallel (simultaneous) testing by several independent experimenters. It means that other investigators are permitted to check and try to falsify the hypothesis proposed by the scientist. This procedure provides the most optimal tempo of investigation and economization of working time of the team. It is also efficient to check up several versions across. Gradual verification threatens to take more time and even ruin precious evidences , miss the procedure deadline of investigation. Considerable rule of examination consists in the following: test should go on until the version is disproved or until we achieve the situation when we can consider it to be the objective truth. The scientific method turns an assumption on any fact into a reliable piece of knowledge when we can prove this is the only fact to give such results. The hypothesis also turns into reliable knowledge when it is proved that all possible reasons of some fact except one are ruled out. The forensic version is right under the following circumstances: If all possible suppositions concerning the circumstances of the crime under detection were taken into account and no new data bring new versions. For instance, if there are three versions of murder (willful homicide, manslaughter, or an accident), disprove of the two versions except the first doesnt prove the willful murder is true. It can turn to be a mistake and truth nay be in the suicide version missed by the investigator. All the versions proposed concerning the situation were verified and all of them except the only one objectively proved were disproved and thrown away. All the consequences (circumstances) logically concluded from the proved version were thoroughly studied and revealed by confirmation. The version confirmed is absolutely coordinated with other circumstances of the case. Only in the case all the conditions listed are observed, the version can be admitted as the one corresponding to reality and expressing the objective truth (Flexner Hauck, 1987). Eventually, when the hypothesis is confirmed repeatedly through times over time, this hypothesis has all the chances to become a theory. When we say a theory, we mean a common principle used by scientists to explicate phenomena and make predictions of further events. All in all, we have seen the systematic approach provided by the general scientific method when applied to the forensic science. At the same time it is necessary to remember that forensic science itself is often defined as the application of science to law. It goes without saying, it is not ideal at all and has its own disadvantages consisting in certain limitations, but still it has demonstrated its sustainability in the sphere of crimes. The scientific method has proven itself over time to be a reliable way to arrive at real, measurable, observable truth, Dr. Thomas Young proclaims (Young, 2009).

Immoral Materialism :: essays research papers

Immoral Materialism   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The desire to be rich is part of every American’s dream, but does one change when one becomes rich? Can one be happy and wealthy? Just as the characters in the novel The Great Gatsby, written by Scott Fitzgerald, people believe that money will buy them a happy life. In the almanacks of Poor Richard, quite a different approach at happiness is presented. Poor Richard writes about money as just a supplement to a wise man, that being knowledgeable and having a trade are far more respectable that inheriting money from a relative. Contrary to Poor Richard’s works, the prevalent aspirations of modern Americans are better represented in Fiztgerald’s work The Great Gastby, which shows the ignorance of the rich, the adulterous morality of people, and the correct way to pursue happiness.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Today’s society believes that money can buy happiness. Jordan, a character of The Great Gastby, explains this theme when she says, “Gastby bought that house so that Daisy would be just across the bay'; (79). Gatsby Himself later states “She only married you because I was poor…It was a terrible mistake.'; (131). These quotes explain Gastby’s belief, that if he becomes rich, he will be able to obtain love from Daisy. This is quite contrary to the ideas of Ben Franklin represented in this quote “Content makes poor men rich; Discontent makes rich men poor';, this quote explains that life itself is the reward, not the things that money can bring to it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many wealthy people assume that it is their right to have others listen to and follow their own wishes, or thoughts. The character, Tom Buchanan is the model superficial rich person. Who attempts to force his poorly thought-out, stolen theories to all those around him. This is shown in the indication of his tone when he states “ ‘Civilization’s is going to pieces,’ broke out Tom violently'; (13). Tom’s use of non-formal English, such as “I’ve gotten to be a terrible pessimist about things'; (13) cause him to stand out from his wife and the other Characters. This view of superiority by white males that have inherited wealth is not uncommon today. Contradicting the stated opinion, Franklin feels that a man that gains his wealth deserves more respect that one who inherited it though family ties when he writes “A Ploughman on his Legs is higher than a Gentleman on his Knees.

An Article on Facebook from the Times of India Essay

For once, I was ahead of the curve, and, having rarely been in this exalted place, I can tell you it feels good. The backlash against Facebook, the social networking site, has begun, with rumblings of discontent being heard from distant corners of the globe. Word is going round that it is time-wasting, trivial, and a pathetic substitute for meeting friends in person. This is precisely what I have been saying to my friends all along but they used to recoil in horror as though declining to open a Facebook account was like refusing to bathe. They muttered darkly about certain people being pig-headed. I was reated like a Luddite, vainly holding out against penicillin or the electric kettle. Every time i asked them what exactly was so wonderful about this site, they gave the same feeble answers. Oh, it’s a great way to keep in touch. You can post your photos on it. Through the links to other people’s pages, you can see what your ex-boyfriends or ex-husbands are up to. Well, according to me, this is a waste of time. I can barely keep in touch with the friends who really matter to me four to five at the most, at any given stage in my life much less maintain an online relationship with old college friends or colleagues from years ago. If one has never bothered to make contact with them in all these years, it’s because one has never needed or particularly wanted to. It means that they don’t matter hugely to me now. They did then, but now i’m in touch with another set of friends. My life is full enough with them. If one has a spare few hours, one would rather meet a friend over coffee or wine. That real-time, face-to-face conversation is contact, not exchanging trivia online. Why would i want to see a friend’s holiday snaps when i can barely summon up enough interest in my own to get them developed? Few things, bar waiting for milk to boil, are as boring as other people’s holiday pictures. Much as i love my friends in various parts of the world, i’m perfectly content with a ‘broad brush’ update. An occasional e-mail telling me they are fine, their teenage son hasn’t become a drug dealer and their dog’s arthritis is better is fine with me. Any more detail is redundant. I assume they are equally uninterested in the daily mundaneness of my life and that is exactly as it should be. Even assuming i wanted to sign up, i would never have the time. If i, blessed with two maids and only one child to look after, cannot find the time to go on this site, how do millions of others, particularly those in the West who have many household chores, do so? hurry! No wonder companies are banning this site. God knows what it is doing to global productivity. But even outside work, don’t people have to walk the dog? Check up on an elderly aunt? File their tax returns? The Facebook phenomenon has confirmed yet again what we have always known that human beings are sheep. They see someone going off in one direction and they follow blindly for no apparent reason beyond the comfort of numbers. All my efforts at persuading my 12-year-old son not to get onto Facebook failed. I spoke cogently about the charm of being different, of having the moral strength to resist peer pressure, of the infinitely greater pleasures of reading, but my efforts failed. His school friends looked at him as though he had gone soft in the brain. As for twitter, don’t even get me started. The very name cutesy and twee irritates the hell out of me. Facebook and twitter are fads. Like all fads, they’ll end up in the dustbin, not of history, but of history’s footnotes.

Homeland Security essays

Homeland Security essays Many Americans have argued against the creation of the Department of Homeland Security, saying that it will take away too many freedoms. I ask, What good are these freedoms if terrorist events wipe us out before we can enjoy them? The department is being created due to the events of September 11th. The new department should ensure security for our homeland. Three candidates (George Bush, John Kerry, and Ralph Nader) are battling neck to neck in the 2004 election for President. Each candidate has strong and different views on Homeland Security in which they plan to make this country a safer place to live. President Bush created this department in response to the nine-eleven attacks. Before the department was created, all the different agencies were scattered all over the place. Now all the agencies are unified into one single department that is committed to protecting the United States. This department consists of twenty-two agencies and 180,000 employees. The mission of homeland security is to prevent us from terrorist attacks and to protect and respond to any threats or hazards to the nation (DHS). The department is divided into six major categories. They are Border and Transportation Security, Emergency Preparedness and Response, Science and Technology, Analysis and Infrastructure Protection, Intelligence and Warning, and defending against deadly One main topic that is brought up in the issue of Homeland Security is the U.S. Patriot Act. The act allows law enforcement officers to access private medical, library, or student records and can prevent from letting the person know. This Act was passed through both houses of Congress with little debate and no formal hearings on October 26, 2001 (Doyle). Bush said, Don't let Patriot Act expire-terrorist threat won't (Bush). Bush supports the Patriot Act and believes the act was one of his great achievements in his firs ...

What Does ACT Stand For The Complete Story

What Does ACT Stand For The Complete Story SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips The ACT is now the most popular college admissions standardized test in the US, with the number of test-takers exceeding that of the SAT. But what does ACT actually stand for, and why does this actually matter? We answer all your questions in this guide. What Does ACT Mean? The ACT began in 1959, when Everett Franklin Lindquist, a professor at University of Iowa,was unhappy with the SAT for two reasons: The SAT was designed as an aptitude test – essentially, it tested your intelligence and innate capacity to learn. Lindquist thought that a college assessment test should really be testing what you’ve actually learned in school. The SAT was popular in private schools in the northeastern US (New York, Massachusetts) but not in the rest of the country and not in public schools. Lindquist believed the test should be accepted by public institutions and other schools across the country. Even though the SAT had begun over 30 years earlier and was growing in popularity, Lindquist believed he could do things better. As a result, he founded the American College Testing Program. See the ACT in there? Exclusive Bonus: What's a good ACT score, and how high do you need to score?Read our guide to find out. Lindquist designed the ACT to cover skills that you’ve learned in school. It began with four sections: English, Math, Social Studies, and Natural Sciences. It gave a composite score, just like it does now (read How is the ACT Composite Score Calculated?) Since then, the test hasn’t changed all that much, in contrast to the SAT, which has had something of an identity crisis. Here are the major milestones in the history of the ACT: 1959: The first ACT is administered to 75,460 students. 1972: Million Mark: The ACT hits 1,000,000 students taking the ACT. 1989: Redesign: The ACT undergoes a major change. The Social Studies section is changed into Reading, and Natural Sciences is changed into Science Reasoning. Both changes are an attempt to test fundamental reading and reasoning skills, rather than facts about history and science. 2005: The ACT adds an optional Writing Test. 2007: Every single college in the United States now accepts the ACT for admission. 2012: The number of students taking the ACT surpasses the SAT for the first time. At 1.85 million students, this means over half of the country’s graduates are taking the ACT. So what does ACT stand for? It started off as the American College Test, but at this point the ACT organization doesn’t formally call it that. The test is just known as the ACT. What's Next? Now that you’ve learned the history, you probably want to know how you can get the highest ACT score possible. Find out what a good ACT score is, and how to calculate your own ACT target score. Interested in free ACT practice tests? Click here for a guide on how to get every official ACT practice test available. Read our detailed guide to the best ACT prep books. Want to improve your ACT score by 4 points or more? We've written a free guide to the very best strategies you need to use:

Essay 3 You choose topic Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

3 You choose topic - Essay Example Terrorism must be defined in concrete terms enough to understand when it happens and to ensure that the public, media, and governments are not excluding states and organizations that accept, promote, support, and conduct some forms of terrorism. Terrorism and insurgency are not the same. Insurgency may refer to acts where groups or organizations are resisting occupying forces, colonizers, and usurpers, as well as constituted authority (Taskhiri). Insurgents can also claim that they are fighting a â€Å"lawful war† through tactics that international law will consider as acceptable and not related to terrorism (Libaw). An example would be a local insurgency group that attacks or defends itself from military operations. Terrorism, on the opposite, does not play by international rules. Yonah Alexander, director of the Institute for Studies in International Terrorism at the State University of New York, differentiates terrorism from insurgency and guerilla warfare. He states: â€Å"Terrorists are not insurgents, not guerrillas†¦Terrorists are beyond all norms. They dont recognize any laws† (Libaw). Terrorism does not have legitimacy that insurgency may have. Both could have political motivations, but terrorism does not respect international laws and norms regarding warfare. Not all militant organizations are involved in terrorism too, especially those that conduct social works or have legal national organizations fronts. Zohar Kampf explores the media’s use of terrorism. It notes that the Washington Post differentiates militants with a social cause from terrorists without one. It calls â€Å"Palestinian Hamas group ‘militants’ and members of al Qaeda ‘terrorists’† (Kampf 6). The Washington Post defends that Hamas performs social work and is driven by territorial and national sentiments, while â€Å"al Qaeda exists only as a terrorist

What are the principal barriers to secondary analysis of qualitative Essay

What are the principal barriers to secondary analysis of qualitative data Why should researchers pursue this approach - Essay Example This type of analysis can either be qualitative or quantitative, and aims at dealing with new study questions by investigating previously collected data. This discussion is focused on secondary analysis of qualitative data. There is no difference in definition to secondary analysis of data, except for the difference between qualitative and quantitative data involved. In the case of secondary analysis of qualitative data, the existing data use is qualitative rather than quantitative. Qualitative data is all about behaviour and attitudes which cannot be quantified. Quantitative data however, focuses on numerical data. Analysis involves large sets of data that are used to make predictions or generalizations3. Secondary analysis brings in a new body of knowledge. Mostly, secondary analyses have been carried out in cases where authors want to: Perform additional analysis to a subset of the original dataset, Perform additional analysis to the original dataset, Pursue distinct interests fro m the original analysis, Provide case material for teaching and methodological development, Apply a new conceptual focus or new perspective to the original research issues, and Describe the historical and contemporary attributes, and behaviour of groups, individuals, organizations or societies. Secondary analysis is also important in situations where the participants are difficult to access, especially in sensitive topics4. Secondary analysis for qualitative data focuses on qualitative research. An example could be, a research focusing on the attitudes of footballers towards the media. An analysis of these attitudes can be done on a primary level. A secondary analysis may have a different target, for example, it would say, the attitudes reveal the footballers’ real emotions, and use the primary data from the original research to prove the point. These secondary analyses to qualitative data have barriers and benefits. These are as discussed below. Barriers to Secondary Analysi s of Qualitative Data There is lack of familiarity with the data. When collecting primary data, the aim of the research guides the arrangement of such data, so that familiarity, with its structure and various features is not an issue. When conducting a secondary analysis however, a researcher has to take time finding out why certain qualitative data is coded as they are in the primary dataset. This means that the researcher will need a lot of time to decode the primary dataset, and in some cases, to understand the complexity of the dataset’s organization. If the qualitative dataset is found to be complex, it may discourage a secondary analysis. Complexity of a dataset and time taken to familiarize with specific variables in a qualitative dataset, are some of the barriers to such analyses5. Another barrier is the primary researchers’ legal and ethical obligation to keep such data confidential. Qualitative data may be characterised by the content of sensitive or private information. This is especially true about data obtained from interviews in which the interviewees entrust the primary researcher with sensitive or private information about them or their lives. The primary researcher has the obligation to protect the information, and maintain confidentiality as agreed upon before data collection. The main problem in secondary analysis is approaching such kind of researchers to analyse their data a second time. It could be an example of an ethical dilemma. The original researcher may want to share his or her data, but the confidential information that will be accessed by the secondary analysts may lead to a breach of contract between the primary resea